LEISA Magazine • 22.4 •
December 2006
Ecological processes and farmer livelihoods in shaded coffee production
V. Ernesto Méndez and Christopher M. Bacon
Most tropical primary forests have been transformed into landscapes containing
many different types of land uses. The challenge to maintain and conserve some
of the original biodiversity of these forests has resulted in a need for farming
systems to develop and manage biodiversity. Recent research, as well as the
experiences of farmers in many parts of the world, shows that shaded coffee
agroecosystems have exceptional potential for the conservation of tropical plant
and animal species, in addition to producing high quality coffee. This article
shows how this potential is linked to farmers’ livelihood strategies in
six co-operatives in El Salvador and Nicaragua. The article is based on work
carried out by these co-operatives together with two local non-governmental
partners, the Central de Cooperativas Cafetaleras del Norte (CECOCAFEN) in Nicaragua,
and Asesoría e Investigación Interdisciplinaria para el Desarrollo
Local y la Conservación (ASINDEC) in El Salvador.
In El Salvador we worked with three coffee co-operatives in the municipality
of Tacuba, in the western part of the country. These farms are of high ecological
importance as they surround the El Imposible National Park, the largest protected
area in the country. The farms are situated at elevations ranging between 650
and 1400 meters above sea level, and the co-operatives grow two varieties of
shade coffee (“Borbon” and “Pacas”), which both produce
high quality beans, although their productivity is much lower than that of full
sun coffee varieties. In Nicaragua we also worked with three co-operatives in
the communities of Yasika Sur and Yúcul. These farms are located about
25 kilometres from the city of Matagalpa, in the northern part of the country.
Coffee varieties found here include “Tipica”, “Maragogipe”,
“Borbon” and “Caturra”, with a few farmers having also
planted newer hybrid varieties such as “Catuai” and “Catimor”.
Yields in Nicaragua range from 140 kg/ha among certified organic farmers to
as much as 285 kg/ha among conventional producers.
Ecological processes and livelihoods
In 2000 we started using a Participatory Action Research approach, trying to
involve a wide diversity of stakeholders as active participants in the research
activities and to integrate research into an action agenda that would contribute
to local development and increase biodiversity conservation. The aim of this
approach was to foster a mutual learning process which would help improve management
of on-farm ecological processes and support farmer livelihood strategies.
Work ranged from developing rigorous inventories of the diversity of shade
trees on-farm; to providing training on ecological management and support for
marketing efforts. We supported farmers through the processes of organic certification,
and trained individuals from the co-operatives on ecological methods for identifying,
monitoring and managing shade trees. In addition, we have continually supported
the efforts of these farmers to incorporate different forms of agroecotourism
within their livelihood strategies. In both countries, organic certification
and agroecotourism have the potential for increasing the incomes of the organisations
and their members. This, however, requires making connections with different
local and international networks. Success, though, has come slowly and with
many obstacles. The obstacles have included the costs of organic certification,
the difficulties in marketing and the cost of constructing the necessary infrastructure
for agroecotourism.
Advantages and disadvantages
Although coffee is traditionally grown under shade, farmers in many countries
have been encouraged to shift to coffee varieties which need full sun, as
this reduces fungal infections and increases yields. Emphasis on faster maturation
and higher yields, however, overlooks other aspects. In shade grown coffee,
shade trees protect sensitive coffee bushes from harsh winds and excessive
light; protect the soil against erosion, and regulate temperature and humidity.
The shade trees have multiple uses (timber, fruit production, fuel wood, medicines)
and most important, there is growing evidence that shade positively affects
coffee quality.
Shade trees also have other effects. They improve nutrient cycling by absorbing
nutrients through the roots at lower depths in the soil and depositing leaf
litter on the surface. They reduce the growth of weeds and also increase local
biodiversity by providing food or shelter for many other species, such as
birds and insects.
Farmers’ interest in better understanding the ecological processes occurring
on their farms is closely linked to the direct impact that this learning and
management can have on improving their livelihoods. Our work focused mainly
on how to manage the shade trees and coffee plants, i.e. the competition between
different plant species within a cropping system, and on developing ecological
management practices for organic production.
Shaded coffee management
Shade coffee agroecosystems have a high potential for strengthening ecological
processes. This is partly due to the similarity between the structure of shaded
coffee farms, and the natural forest ecosystems that they have displaced. Ecological processes such as nutrient and water cycling, energy flows and population regulation mechanisms function in a manner that is similar to those
occurring in tropical forests. Our focus therefore was on the management of
shade species in coffee plantations, particularly in terms of biodiversity and
on-farm agroforestry management.
Tree biodiversity conservation
Agroecology places a high value on the conservation of biodiversity as a tool
for managing competition and pests. In shaded coffee, it is especially important
to assess the existing tree biodiversity since, in providing shelter to other
species, trees multiply the biodiversity levels of a farm and its surrounding
areas. In the Nicaraguan coffee co-operatives we found 106 tree species used
for shade. In El Salvador we identified 123 species, from 46 families. The number
of shade tree species found on the coffee farms was similar to the number of
species found in sample plots in the El Imposible National Park. However, the
species themselves were very different, and reflected the farmers’ preferences
for useful species, instead of rare, endangered forest species.
Shade tree management
The similar results from Nicaragua and El Salvador reflect similar management
practices in both countries. Farmers manage the shade tree canopy so as to optimise
coffee production while maximising the use of the different tree species. This
means that all shade trees are pruned once or twice every year, aiming to leave
a 40 to 50 percent shade cover. During this yearly activity tree heights are
also controlled so that they remain at between five and ten metres. Sometimes
farmers leave larger trees in place, to use for construction timber. Weeding
is done manually with machetes at least twice a year and farmers always take
care to leave naturally regenerated tree seedlings to grow. They are left to
grow to provide additional shade in a specific area (regardless of the species),
or until they can be identified. Farmers often uproot and transplant desirable,
naturally regenerating, trees.
Individual small scale farmers also tend to plant a high diversity of trees
to meet the family’s needs of firewood, fruit, and timber. This is less
common in collectively managed co-operatives, where the shade trees are used
for firewood or timber. Co-operatives do not make as much use of fruit trees
because there is no clear definition of the responsibilities for taking care
of them, nor of ownership of the produce.
Shade management is directly linked to the yields obtained. Although “full
sun” coffee varieties have the potential to produce more coffee beans
per plant, they require high levels of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides
to do so. The co-operatives cannot afford this type of management, nor the cost
of replacing their shade-loving varieties with those resistant to full sun.
Instead, farmers are improving production without changing the shade tree system.
Examples of improved management include replanting coffee in areas where the
plants are too old, improving fertility management, and following basic agronomic
practices like the regular pruning of the coffee plants.
Supporting agroecological management
The use of Participatory Action Research has helped us reach a better understanding
of the ecological processes in shade grown coffee in the co-operatives, and
this understanding has made it possible to develop better management practices.
The action agenda facilitated exchange of information between researchers and
farmers. In this way, the understanding developed during research can be used
to support co-operatives and their members’livelihoods.
We believe that agroecological management offers great possibilities to achieve
both production and conservation goals in co-operative coffee plantations, but
there are several key issues that require immediate attention. To improve production,
co-operatives need access to financial and technical assistance. Secondly, they
need help in finding better markets for coffee that support the conservation
of biodiversity. Finally, a comprehensive approach is needed to assist the co-operatives
in diversifying their livelihoods through improved food production and agroecotourism.
This development will require solid partnerships with a diversity of actors.
In our role as the Participatory Action Research partners, we are strongly supporting
the co-operatives in finding and developing the partners and networks that will
work best for them.
V. Ernesto Méndez. Environmental Program and Department of Plant &
Soil Science, The Bittersweet, 153 South Prospect St., University of Vermont,
Burlington, Vermont 05401, U.S.A. E-mail: emendez@uvm.edu
Christopher M. Bacon. 2830 Magowan Drive, Santa Rosa, California 95405, U.S.A.
E-mail: christophermbacon@gmail.com
References
- Bacon, C., V. E. Méndez and M. Brown, 2005. Participatory action-research
and support for community development and conservation: examples from shade
coffee landscapes of El Salvador and Nicaragua. Research Brief # 6. Center for
Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems (CASFS), University of California:
Santa Cruz, California, U.S.A.
- Gliessman, S. R., 2006. Agroecology: the ecology of food systems. CRC Press,
Boca Raton, Florida, U.S.A.
- Méndez, V. E. and C. Bacon, 2005. Medios de vida y conservación
de la biodiversidad arbórea: las experiencias de las cooperativas cafetaleras
en El Salvador y Nicaragua. LEISA Revista de Agroecología 20 (4):27-30.
- Méndez, V. E., S. R. Gliessman and G. S. Gilbert, 2007. Tree biodiversity
in farmer cooperatives of a shade coffee landscape in western El Salvador.
Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, in press.
- Somarriba, E., C. Harvey, M. Samper, F. Anthony, J. Gonzalez, C. Staver and
R. Rice, 2004. Biodiversity in coffee plantations.In G. Schroth, G. Foseca,
C. A. Harvey, Gascon, H. Vasconcelos and A. M. N. Izac (eds.) Agroforestry and biodiversity
conservation in tropical landscapes. Island Press, Washington D.C., U.S.A.
- Soto-Pinto, L., I. Perfecto, J. Castillo-Hernandez and J. Caballero-Nieto, 2000.
Shade effect on coffee production at the northern Tzeltal zone of the state
of Chiapas, Mexico. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 80:61-69.